Impact of Terrorism and Violence on Global Tourism

Introduction According to World Travel and Tourism Council 1997, â€Å"Tourism Industry is the world’s prominent industries contributing $3. 6 trillion to the global gross domestic product (GDP) and employing 255 million people†. (Apostolopoulos, Sonmez &Tarlow 1999). It is also considered one of the most exciting and progressive industries which has a big impact on all other industries. Although tourism industry has shown tremendous growth in recent years providing incredible experiences to its consumers yet it remains highly prone to natural (e. g. Tsunami, Hurricane & volcanic eruptions) and human caused calamities (e. g. war, crime & terrorism). This essay therefore discusses about terrorism in relation to tourism. It focuses on the impacts of terrorism on global tourism and provides an understanding of the relationship between political instability, terrorism and tourism. Tourism, Political Instability and Violence Definition of terrorism† : ?† The US Department of State defines terrorism as â€Å". . . premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against civilians and unarmed military personnel by sub national groups†¦ sually intended to influence an audience†Ã¢â‚¬  ? (Sihmez 1998)   Definition of political instability† : ?† Political instability describes the condition of a country where a government â€Å"has been toppled, or is controlled by factions following a coup, or where basic functional pre-requisites for social-order control and maintenance are unstable and periodica lly disrupted†Ã¢â‚¬  ? (Cook 1990, cited in Sihmez 1998). The study of D’Amore & Anuza 1986 states that, â€Å"Closer scrutiny of terrorism- for the purpose of understanding some of its underlying currents-begs a look at world conditions. As a new millennium is about to begin, nations wrestle with hunger, disease, and numerous other socioeconomic and environmental problems, which are further exacerbated by the alarming growth in the world’s population rate, the combination of which may nurture terrorism. It is suggested that terrorist organizations can easily recruit members by offering better conditions to people living in undesirable circumstances in undeveloped nations†. Therefore, in a situation where terrorism is on rise, safety and stability are the two factors that cannot be ignored while undertaking travel to other countries. Over the years, tourism industry has undergone tremendous changes wherein crime and violence have increased to a great extent. Such exertions have had a big impact on tourists altering their travel. Political instability can be categorised into various forms such as: international war, riots, social unrest, civil war, terrorism etc. â€Å"Most of the evidence on tourist motivations points to fear and insecurity as a major barrier to travel and thus a limitation on the growth of the industry. In addition to the openly stated fear there is often an expression of lack of interest in travel, which can mask an underlying fear. In these circumstances, the possibility of terrorism, however remote, will have an effect on the tourism demand of a large number of potential tourists. † (eds Mansfeld & Pizam1996) Political instability and tourism can be best explained with an example of crackdown by Chinese government on students who protested in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square In a volume edited by Mansfeld & Pizam (1996), â€Å"The sight of tanks rolling into the Square; the violent battles between students and troops; the steadfastly uncompromising attitude of Chinese authorities; it was all watched by the world on prime-time television. And most people living in free societies felt revulsion and anger; those planning holidays to China cancelled, while those with a vague notion of visiting the country put it on hold for the distant future- if ever† General impacts of terrorism and political disturbances upon the tourism industry Even its demonstrated economic success does not shield international tourism from the sinister power of terrorism† (Sonmez, Sevil F. , 1998). No country is safe from the threat of terrorism and research has shown that no part of the world has been spared by it. The fear of a totally unexpected terrorist attack grips the mind of today’s tourist, irrespective of region he is travelling to. Terrorism started to t ake its toll on tourism from mid 80’s, when international tourism was at its peak (Sonmez, Sevil F. 1998), and it became a major concern for many countries. Its impacts vary from direct to indirect and individual to global. Usually, after a terrorist attack or violence erupted due to political clashes, a destination recovers back to its normal inflow of tourists in about a quarter, but some major incidents can also affect tourist visitation for a longer period of time, the reason being over popularity by the media (Sihmez, 1998). For example, India was overexposed in the media after the Mumbai attacks in November 2008 which has had a negative effect on inbound tourism to India during the first quarter of 2009 (Tourism Forecasting Committee, 2008). Political disturbance, on the other hand, has long-term and deeper effects on a destination as it threatens the economy, the law and the society as a whole, thus jeopardizing the potential of a country as a tourism destination (Sihmez 1998). Economic impacts Terrorism and political turmoil mainly affect the economy of a country or a region. Worst hit are the countries, which are majorly dependent on the tourism industry. A good example can be given from 1986, when 54% of Americans who planned to go to Europe, cancelled their bookings because of the risks implied by the rise of terrorist activities during that period (D’Amore and Anuza 1986, cited in Sihmez 1998). Furthermore, countries located nearby a politically agitated country may suffer from a perceived lack of safety by tourists who associate the neighbouring countries due to geographical proximity, although travelling in the former may be without any risk. Countries often have to bear the costs of terrorism, in terms of investments in security, terrorism risk insurance premium, airport screening opportunity costs and consumer welfare losses to ensure safety and security for their people (Keefer P. , 2008). Psychological impacts Impacts of terrorism on tourist behaviour and decision-making process (Sihmez, 1998 pg. 13) however, depend on the type of tourists: business travellers and leisure travellers will not react the same way in regards to risk, as they do not have the same motivations and needs for travel. Image deterioration / Negative images Natural events such as floods, tsunami or earthquakes do not have the same impact on a country’s image as a terrorist attack has. Natural calamities may draw sympathy, and may affect inflow of tourists for a short period, but people know that natural disasters are unavoidable, so the image they form of a destination is different. Fall in tourist arrivals in these destinations may recover earlier because these destinations are not perceived as ‘unsafe’, as in case of a destination, where terrorist activity is prominent. Politically unstable environment of a destination usually has a negative and a much stronger impact on people’s mind over a longer period of time because human action is deliberate and physical injury is most of the time the aim of these actions. Examples and focus on a particular region or destination There are a lot of tourist destinations which suffer from terrorist attacks. Egypt which had almost 4 billion dollars in tourist receipts in 1999 depended a lot on the tourism revenue. However, the revenue from this sector of economy decreased due to the terrorist attacks by al-Gama’a al-Islamiya. The first attack occurred on October 1, 1992. One British tourist was killed and two others were wounded. During the five year period about 100 tourists were killed in the attacks including the tourists from Germany, Greece, Switzerland, Japan and Great Britain. One year after the first attack tourism revenue in Egypt felt by 11 percent. However, it increased by four percent in 1994 and by 34 percent in 1995. Moreover, net increase in tourist receipts between 1993 and 1997 was 93 percent (Essner, 2003). The Egyptian government managed to sustain its tourism sector and contribute to the GSP by 5% (Weaver). The factors of this success are the huge historic and cultural heritage of Egypt that keeps drawing international visitors, but also incentive measures taken by the industry in order to sustain inbound tourism. For instance, the national airline, EgyptAir, cut its airfares by 50% after the 1997 Luxor massacre of 58 tourists (Weaver). â€Å"Event in New York City and Washington D. C. on September 11, 2001 was one of the most significant terrorism attacks which occurred recently. This event influenced the economies of states which depended on the tourism industry a lot. Furthermore, the whole economy of the USA was demolished which led to the global economic slump† (Pizam, 2002). Certain sectors of the tourism industry suffered from the terrorist attack. Hotel occupancy rates decreased dramatically. It â€Å"plummeted to 41. 8 percent the week following the attacks, a 52-percent decrease from the same period in 2000† (Stafford et al, 2002). In total, 3016 people died including passengers and crew on the planes, people within or beneath the Twin Towers and on the ground at the Pentagon. This attack has certain impacts on travel and tourism industry in the USA. Security measures at the places where large number of people including tourists are likely to gather were reconsidered. The number of US National guards in the airports increased and other security measures in the airports such as better screening and checking of passengers and baggage technologies were introduced. Security measures were improved in seaports, bus stations and train station as well. It included increasing of the surveillance cameras and checkpoints. The number of security guards in these places grew up as well. Moreover, the Federal Aviation Administration set up the program of increasing the number of bomb-sniffing dogs. The FAA trained 175 dogs for 39 airports (Goodrich, 2002). Many other countries which have high rates in tourism receipts also suffered from the terrorist attacks. Establishing of an Islamic Palestinian State in place of Israel resulted in the attacks initiated by both Israelis and Palestinians. This disturbance led to dramatic drop in 1996 in the number of tourists which grew steadily between 1970 and 1994 (Sihmez Sevil F. 1998). Another example of suffering from terrorism attack is Peru. Attacks by the Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path), a Maoist terrorist group caused the decrease in number of tourists from 350,000 in 1989 to 33,000 in 1991 (Sihmez Sevil F. 1998). Word of mouth and previous experience Media Reporting & Image making Intergovernmental relationsGovernment policies and interests Figure 1: Political instability, violence and the imaging process Hall &O’Sullivan study (cited in Mansfeld & Pizam 1996) The above figure is a model of various factors that lead to image creation of the political stability of the destination region. Three factors: word of mouth, media and the government lead to the images creation of destination, in the tourist generating regions. Domestic tourism is equally affected by the occurrence of any kind of violence or terrorist activity. Many factors such as: promotion, tourist attractions, development, new routes, travel prices contribute in to reasonable changes in domestic as well as international tourism. As per the study of Bar-on (cited in Mansfeld and Pizam 1996), act of violence can affect tourism in following ways: â€Å"Tourists may fear being killed or injured. † Security checks, especially at airports, may take a long time and even be unpleasant for some tourists. † â€Å"Tour operators, travel agents and airlines may not want to risk organizing trips to specific regions. † â€Å"Travel insurance of tourists and airlines may be difficult, limited or expensive. † â€Å"Friends or relatives at the destination may advice against the proposed trip. à ¢â‚¬  This is also supported by Hall and O’ Sullivan study (cited in Mansfeld & Pizam 1996) which states that, â€Å". . . tourism may decline precipitously when political conditions appear unsettled. Tourists simply choose alternative destinations. Unfortunately, many national leaders and planners either do not understand or will not accept the fact that political serenity, not scenic or cultural attractions, constitute the first and central requirement of tourism. † Although, political violence may not last for a longer period yet it has the tendency to leave a formidable impact on the tourism industry for many years which further can affect the confidence of the tourists and also the investors in tourism industry. Crisis management and recovery methods employed by the tourism industry Tourism has been a way for under-developed and developing countries to get more revenue. Therefore tourists are a potential target for terrorist groups looking to destabilise and undermine these countries by cutting the revenue they get from tourism activities. Recent events such as 9/11, the Southeast Asian tsunami and the Bali bombings have had devastating consequences upon the tourism industry and have shown crisis management and recovery measures have become critical in managing a destination (Robson 2008). According to Santana (cited in Weber 1998), crisis management comprehends five steps: signal detection, preparation/prevention, containment/damage limitation, recovery and learning. Planning and training before, during and after the crisis have also been highlighted (Santana, cited in Weber 1998). On the one hand, research has shown the tourism industry was able to fully recover from terrorist assaults in a period of six to twelve months, at the condition these events were not repeated in the future (Pizam and Fleischer, cited in Arana 2008). However, appropriate management methods must be employed and applied by destination managers in order to ensure image destination rehabilitation. To this end, the management and coordination of human and financial resources as well as public relations through the media for example are critical when it comes to managing terrorist events at a destination (Stafford et al 2002). For instance, a set of recommendations compiling crisis management, preventive management and recovery methods through marketing could be useful for the tourism industry to restore a destination’s image (Sonmez 1998) and prevent any negative publicity from spreading (Stafford et al 2002). Furthermore, collaboration between tourism industry actors and government organisations can often be preventive and mitigate the impacts of the crisis (Stafford et al. 2002). In terms of preventive and recovery methods, tourism destinations should promote the use of information for locals and visitors (Weber 1998) in order to ensure their own safety, for example by signalling any suspicious piece of luggage in a public space through the use of official signs posted in public areas such as airports, railway stations and stadiums. The role of advertising and education as recovery methods is also of importance. For example, the ‘Vigipirate Plan’ was put in place by the French government in 1991 after several terrorist attacks took place in Europe in the nineties. It is made up of 4 levels of emergency (yellow, orange, red and purple) and has been greatly promoted in France at the local administration levels as well as to the general public, especially after massive terrorist attacks such as the March 2004 Madrid attacks and the July 2005 London bombings. Furthermore, government initiatives such as the Australian travel advisory (smartraveller. gov. au) which issues travel recommendations to destinations presenting a certain degree of risk is a preventive way to avoid any accidental or dangerous event. For example, the Australian Government gives tips about Cyprus in terms of safety and security in both the Cypriot and Turkish part of the island, as well as details about local laws, entry and exit requirements and health issues (Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 2009). On the other hand, tourism may be a way to enhance peace, mitigate tensions between countries and recover from any negative effects of terrorism. An example of this is given by the situation between North and South Korea (Kim 2007). Research was conducted in order to evaluate the reactions of South Koreans after visiting a natural site, Mt Gumgang, an emerging tourist destination located in North Korea. The findings suggested that South Korean visitors to North Korea had a better image of the country and the people after their tourist trip, although both countries have technically been at war for decades (Kim 2007). To conclude, tourist destinations have the possibility to prevent terrorism actions from happening or mitigate their effects through combined policies of crisis management involving different participants such as governments and private/public tourism bodies. Nevertheless, although tourism is often a victim of terrorism and political disturbances, it can also be used as a tool to promote and enhance peace between countries affected by political tensions. References Adams, S. 2004, All the Troubles: Terrorism, War and the World after 9/11, Simon Adams, Australia Arana J. , 2008, The impact of terrorism on tourism demand, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 299–315. Apostolopolous Y. , Sonmez S. & Tarlow P. 1999, Tourism In Crisis: Managing the Effects of Tourism, Journal of Travel Research, Vol. 38, No. 1, viewed 17 May, http://jtr. sagepub. com. ezproxy. lib. uts. edu. au/cgi/content/abstract/38/1/13 Bar-On R. , ‘Measuring the effects on tourism of violence and of promotion following violent acts’, in Mansfeld Y. & Pizam A (eds), Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. , pp. 159-160 Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 2009, last viewed May 17th 2009, http://www. smartraveller. gov. au/ Essner J. 2003, Terrorism’s Impact on Tourism: What the Industry May Learn from Egypt’s Struggle with al-Gama’a al-Islamiya, viewed on May 15,2009, http://sand. miis. edu/research/student_research/Essner_Tourist%20Terrorism. pdf Hall C. & O’ Sullivan V. , ‘Tourism, political instability and violence’, in Mansfeld Y. & Pizam A (eds), Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. , pp. 105-114 Kim S. , 2007, Using tourism to promote peace on the Korean peninsula, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp. 291–309. Mansfeld Y. & Pizam A. , ‘Conclusions and Recommendations’, Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues, John Wiley & Sons Ltd. , pp. 311-312 Mueller J. 2007, Reacting to Terrorism: Probabilities, Consequences and the persistence of Fear, Ohio State University, viewed 17 May, http://scholar. google. com. ezproxy. lib. uts. edu. au/scholar? hl=en&lr=&q=REACTING+TO+TERRORISM%3A+PROBABILITIES%2C+CONSEQUENCES%2C+AND+THE+PERSISTENCE+OF+FEAR&btnG=Search Pizam A. 2002, Tourism and Terrorism, Hospitality Management, Vol. 21, No 1–3 Robson, L. , 2008, Crisis Management in Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 600–601. Sihmez Sevil F. 1998, Tourism, Terrorism and Political Instability, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 25, No. 2. Sonmez, S. F. 1998, Tourism, Terrorism and Political Instability, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 25, No. 2. Stafford, G. Et al, 2002, Crisis Management and Recovery, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 27, Cornell University Tourism Forecasting Committee, 2008, Forecast 2008, Issue 2, Tourism Forecasting Committee, Canberra, pp 91-92 Weaver D. , Tourism Management, 2000 Weber, S. 1998, War, Terrorism and Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, Volume 25, Issue 3, Pages 760-763 ———————– Tourists Destination Region Generating Region Media Government

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Concert report - Essay Example The program pieces included Handel: Concerto Grosso in G, Op. 6 No. 1, Handel: Water Music Suite No. 3 in G, Handel: Water Music Suite No. 1 in F and you you.  There was a lot of excitement and high expectations as the audience settled in their seats before the curtain rose. The conductor, the performers and the orchestra were formally introduced and welcomed with a huge applause from the audience before the show began. The pieces played at the concert are discussed below. Handel: Concerto Grosso in G The piece made a bright opening with a happy and sprightly tune in the form of a waltz. The piece was a sort one which lasted for about 2 and a half minutes and the rhythm was up tempo. When the rhythm slowed down in places the music was soft and when it became fast, the volume increased and this added some variety to the piece. The instrumentation and harmony was good and pleasant to the ears. Handel: Water Music Suite No. 3 in G This piece was quite lengthy and continued for 5mins. And 38 secs. It comprised of three distinct parts which added to the variety of the piece. The first part was medium paced with the whole orchestra playing in unison. As the piece drifts to the second part it has the instruments alternating in prominence while the orchestra lent a good backing for them. The third movement was a loud and sprightly piece with good harmony which was interlinked with soft playing in between to give unity to the piece. Handel: Water Music Suite No. 1 in F This sprightly piece was about three minutes long and in the format of a lively dance rhythm which was simple but very attractive. The instruments played alternated in a sort of question and answer presentation with nice melody and harmony which was not only interesting but also captivating. The entire piece was well integrated and had a strong unity despite the variety of instruments offered. Even though the rhythm had a good dance appeal, the volume of the sound was pleasant and toned down. Towards th e end of the piece, the last ten seconds of music had slow paced rhythm before coming to an end. Handel: Il delirio amoroso In the last piece the orchestra joins the Soprano Sonya Yoncheva and serves as a perfect foil while it provides a strong backing for the soprano vocals. The piece which had a length of about 5 and a half minute, had a lively rhythm interspersed with instrumental interludes between the singing of the soprano. The dynamics exhibited by the soprano is quite praiseworthy as it was effortlessly executed, showing her mastery over the subject. Though the piece was well integrated and had a good melody and harmony, yet I felt that it did not have a uniform form as it comprised of both fast and slow paced rhythms and alternated between soft and loud volumes. At about 3 and a half minutes of the piece there is a lengthy instrumental piece, similar to the one played at the beginning of the piece and once again the soprano takes over till the piece comes to a close. Conclu sion I would describe myself as an avid listener and I enjoyed the concert comprising of Handel’s pieces, which proved to be quite interesting as it was inspiring. The pieces chosen to be played had good variety and were very well performed by the soprano as well as the orchestra and this was what attracted the audience, even me, to not just only be a spectator but enjoy the concert wholeheartedly. The level of performance of the conductor Emmanuelle Haim, the soprano and the entire orchestra was of a very high standard

Trends in income distribution in the United States Essay

Trends in income distribution in the United States - Essay Example The higher concentration wealth to the a few people will reflect a hierarchical structured society. Moreover, a relatively sprite distribution of income among people will reflect a bigger middle class. Either two of the circumstances has an impact on the situation, conditions and perceptions of people. The first situation implies a better situation for those who are more affluent or those who are in the upper strata of society. This can also dictate an unfair playing ground between the have’s and the have not’s. The second situation entails more social equity. This means that opportunities are fair to all people regardless of their class. This will also reflect the government’s structure and the degree of welfare it provide to its citizens. It may be noted that the gap in income distribution may be a major cause of negative perceptions among Americans, which divides the country into economic lines (Allen, 2007). Scholars have studied trends in the income distribution in various industrialized countries including the United States. In the said studies, the scholars have identified a pattern in the income distribution of industrialized countries particularly in the trajectories of income distribution. The common features suggest a systematic pattern in which inequality at first increased, reached a peak, and later declined in the course of industrial development. This creates an inverted U shape figure. Further studies reflect that after the 1970s, a reversal of the first study occured (Allen, 2007). Income distribution can be gleaned through various measures such as data on household income, individual income or tax accrued to the government. Income distribution can also be studied vis-Ã  -vis other factors such as gender, regional distribution, race, etc. Each year, the U.S. Census Bureau releases data on the

Three methods of measuring the health of the Australian population and Essay

Three methods of measuring the health of the Australian population and use these to compare the health status of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian adults - Essay Example the indigenous people are defined â€Å"as an individual of Torres Strait Islander or Aboriginal origin that identifies as a Torres Strait Islander or Aboriginal and is accepted as such by the society in which he or she lives.† They were the first inhabitants of Australia. They have a less population compared to that of non- indigenous persons. Australias aboriginal population was estimated to be 669,900 people in 2011, which was 3% of the total population (ABS, 2013). There is an extensive gap between the health of the indigenous and the non- indigenous persons that’s contributed by various factors leading to the inequalities between them. The indigenous group is more disadvantaged as compared to the non-indigenous as stipulated by the AIHW (Australian Health 2014). The importance of this essay is to identify and describe three methods that can be used to measure the health status of both the indigenous and the non-indigenous populations in Australia. It will also help make a comparison between the two Australian groups. The methods will bring out the inequalities that exist between the two groups their differences. The three methods for the measurement of the health status in Australia that will be described in this essay are mortality and life expectancy, circulatory disease, and health risk factors. Life expectancy is an arithmetical measure of how long an organism or person may live. The statistics are obtained from mortality patterns and give information on the well-being of the community. It is given in terms of the number of years one is expected to live too but not the years of the remaining life (AIHW, 2012). In Australia, the indigenous group has a lower life expectancy as compared to the non-indigenous group across all the age groups (AIHW 2011). The death rates for the adults are higher in an indigenous group than in the non-indigenous Australians. They are vulnerable to illnesses that eventually lead to their death. Most of the indigenous deaths

Phil .Literature Essay Example for Free

Phil .Literature Essay Philippine literary production during the American Period in the Philippines was spurred by two significant developments in education and culture. One is the introduction of free public instruction for all children of school age and two, the use of English as medium of instruction in all levels of education in public schools. Free public education made knowledge and information accessible to a greater number of Filipinos. Those who availed of this education through college were able to improve their social status and joined a good number of educated masses who became part of the country’s middle class. The use of English as medium of instruction introduced Filipinos to Anglo-American modes of thought, culture and life ways that would be embedded not only in the literature produced but also in the psyche of the country’s educated class. It was this educated class that would be the wellspring of a vibrant Philippine Literature in English. Philippine literature in English, as a direct result of American colonization of the country, could not escape being imitative of American models of writing especially during its period of apprenticeship. The poetry written by early poets manifested studied attempts at versification as in the following poem which is proof of the poet’s rather elementary exercise in the English language: Vacation days at last are here, And we have time for fun so dear, All boys and girls do gladly cheer, This welcomed season of the year. In early June in school we’ll meet; A harder task shall we complete And if we fail we must repeat That self same task without retreat. We simply rest to come again To school where boys and girls obtain The Creator’s gift to men Whose sanguine hopes in us remain. Vacation means a time for play For young and old in night and day My wish for all is to be gay, And evil none lead you astray- Juan F. Salazar Philippines Free Press, May 9, 1909| The poem was anthologized in the first collection of poetry in English, Filipino Poetry, edited by Rodolfo Dato (1909 – 1924). Among the poets featured in this anthology were Proceso Sebastian Maximo Kalaw, Fernando Maramag, Leopoldo Uichanco, Jose Ledesma, Vicente Callao, Santiago Sevilla, Bernardo Garcia, Francisco Africa, Pablo Anzures, Carlos P. Romulo, Francisco Tonogbanua, Juan Pastrana, Maria Agoncillo, Paz Marquez Benitez, Luis Dato and many others. Another anthology, The English German Anthology of Poetsedited by Pablo Laslo was published and covered poets published from 1924-1934 among whom were Teofilo D. Agcaoili, Aurelio Alvero, Horacio de la Costa, Amador T. Daguio, Salvador P. Lopez, Angela Manalang Gloria, Trinidad Tarrosa, Abelardo Subido and Jose Garcia Villa, among others. A third pre-war collection of poetry was edited by Carlos Bulosan, Chorus for America: Six Philippine Poets. The six poets in this collection were Jose Garcia Villa, Rafael Zulueta da Costa, Rodrigo T. Feria, C. B. Rigor, Cecilio Baroga and Carlos Bulosan. In fiction, the period of apprenticeship in literary writing in English is marked by imitation of the style of storytelling and strict adherence to the craft of the short story as practiced by popular American fictionists. Early short story writers in English were often dubbed as the Andersons or Saroyans or the Hemingways of Philippine letters. Leopoldo Yabes in his study of the Philippine short story in English from 1925 to 1955 points to these models of American fiction exerting profound influence on the early writings of story writers like Francisco Arcellana, A. E. Litiatco, Paz Latorena. . When the University of the Philippines was founded in 1908, an elite group of writers in English began to exert influence among the culturati. The U. P. Writers Club founded in 1926, had stated that one of its aims was to enhance and propagate the language of Shakespeare. In 1925, Paz Marquez Benitez short story, Dead Stars was published and was made the landmark of the maturity of the Filipino writer in English. Soon after Benitez, short story writers began publishing stories no longer imitative of American models. Thus, story writers like Icasiano Calalang, A. E. Litiatco, Arturo Rotor, Lydia Villanueva, Paz Latorena , Manuel Arguilla began publishing stories manifesting both skilled use of the language and a keen Filipino sensibility. This combination of writing in a borrowed tongue while dwelling on Filipino customs and traditions earmarked the literary output of major Filipino fictionists in English during the American period. Thus, the major novels of the period, such as the Filipino Rebel, by Maximo Kalaw, and His Native Soil by Juan C. Laya, are discourses on cultural identity, nationhood and being Filipino done in the English language. Stories such as How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife by Manuel Arguilla scanned the scenery as well as the folkways of Ilocandia while N. V. M. Gonzales’s novels and stories such as Children of the Ash Covered Loam, present the panorama of Mindoro, in all its customs and traditions while configuring its characters in the human dilemma of nostalgia and poverty. Apart from Arguilla and Gonzales, noted fictionists during the period included Francisco Arcellana, whom Jose Garcia Villa lauded as a genius storyteller, Consorcio Borje, Aida Rivera, Conrado Pedroche, Amador Daguio, Sinai Hamada, Hernando Ocampo, Fernando Maria Guerrero. Jose Garcia Villa himself wrote several short stories but devoted most of his time to poetry. In 1936, when the Philippine Writers League was organized, Filipino writers in English began discussing the value of literature in society. Initiated and led by Salvador P. Lopez, whose essays on Literature and Societyprovoked debates, the discussion centered on proletarian literature, i. e. , engaged or committed literature versus the art for art’s sake literary orientation. But this discussion curiously left out the issue of colonialism and colonial literature and the whole place of literary writing in English under a colonial set-up that was the Philippines then. With Salvador P. Lopez, the essay in English gained the upper hand in day to day discourse on politics and governance. Polemicists who used to write in Spanish like Claro M. Recto, slowly started using English in the discussion of current events even as newspaper dailies moved away from Spanish reporting into English. Among the essayists, Federico Mangahas had an easy facility with the language and the essay as genre. Other noted essayists during the period were Fernando Maramag, Carlos P. Romulo , Conrado Ramirez. On the other hand, the flowering of a vibrant literary tradition due to historical events did not altogether hamper literary production in the native or indigenous languages. In fact, the early period of the 20th century was remarkable for the significant literary output of all major languages in the various literary genre. It was during the early American period that seditious plays, using the form of the zarsuwela, were mounted. Zarsuwelistas Juan Abad, Aurelio Tolentino ,Juan Matapang Cruz. Juan Crisostomo Sotto mounted the classics like Tanikalang Ginto, Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas and Hindi Ako Patay, all directed against the American imperialists. Patricio Mariano’s Anak ng Dagat and Severino Reyes’s Walang Sugat are equally remarkable zarsuwelas staged during the period. On the eve of World War II, Wilfredo Maria Guerrero would gain dominance in theatre through his one-act plays which he toured through his mobile theatre. Thus, Wanted a Chaperone and The Forsaken Housebecame very popular in campuses throughout the archipelago. The novel in Tagalog, Iloko, Hiligaynon and Sugbuanon also developed during the period aided largely by the steady publication of weekly magazines like the Liwayway, Bannawag and Bisaya which serialized the novels. Among the early Tagalog novelists of the 20th century were Ishmael Amado, Valeriano Hernandez Pena, Faustino Aguilar, Lope K. Santos and Lazaro Francisco. Ishmael Amado’s Bulalakaw ng Pag-asa published in 1909 was one of the earliest novels that dealt with the theme of American imperialism in the Philippines. The novel, however, was not released from the printing press until 1916, at which time, the author, by his own admission and after having been sent as a pensionado to the U. S. , had other ideas apart from those he wrote in the novel. Valeriano Hernandez Pena’s Nena at Neneng narrates the story of two women who happened to be best of friends as they cope with their relationships with the men in their lives. Nena succeeds in her married life while Neneng suffers from a stormy marriage because of her jealous husband. Faustino Aguilar published Pinaglahuan, a love triangle set in the early years of the century when the workers movement was being formed. The novel’s hero, Luis Gatbuhay, is a worker in a printery who isimprisoned for a false accusation and loses his love, Danding, to his rival Rojalde, son of a wealthy capitalist. Lope K. Santos, Banaag at Sikat has almost the same theme and motif as the hero of the novel, Delfin, also falls in love with a rich woman, daughter of a wealthy landlord. The love story of course is set also within the background of development of the worker’s trade union movement and throughout the novel, Santos engages the readers in lengthy treatises and discourses on socialism and capitalism. Many other Tagalog novelists wrote on variations of the same theme, i. e. , the interplay of fate, love and social justice. Among these writers are Inigo Ed Regalado, Roman Reyes, Fausto J. Galauran, Susana de Guzman, Rosario de Guzman-Lingat, Lazaro Francisco, Hilaria Labog, Rosalia Aguinaldo, Amado V. Hernandez. Many of these writers were able to produce three or more novels as Soledad Reyes would bear out in her book which is the result of her dissertation, Ang Nobelang Tagalog (1979). Among the Iloko writers, noted novelists were Leon Pichay, who was also the region’s poet laureate then, Hermogenes Belen, and Mena Pecson Crisologo whose Mining wenno Ayat ti Kararwa is considered to be the Iloko version of a Noli me Tangere. In the Visayas, Magdalena Jalandoni and Ramon Muzones would lead most writers in writing the novels that dwelt on the themes of love, courtship, life in the farmlands, and other social upheavals of the period. Marcel Navarra wrote stories and novels in Sugbuhanon. Poetry in all languages continued to flourish in all regions of the country during the American period. The Tagalogs, hailing Francisco F. Balagtas as the nation’s foremost poet invented the balagtasan in his honor. Thebalagtasan is a debate in verse, a poetical joust done almost spontaneously between protagonists who debate over the pros and cons of an issue. The first balagtasan was held in March 1924 at the Instituto de Mujeres, with Jose Corazon de Jesus and Florentino Collantes as rivals, bubuyog (bee) and paru-paro (butterfly) aiming for the love of kampupot (jasmine). It was during this balagtasan that Jose Corazon de Jesus, known as Huseng Batute, emerged triumphant to become the first king of the Balagtasan. Jose Corazon de Jesus was the finest master of the genre. He was later followed by balagtasistas, Emilio Mar Antonio and Crescenciano Marquez, who also became King of the Balagtasan in their own time. As Huseng Batute, de Jesus also produced the finest poems and lyrics during the period. His debates with Amado V. Hernandez on the political issue of independence from America and nationhood were mostly done in verse and are testament to the vitality of Tagalog poetry during the era. Lope K. Santos, epic poem, Ang Panggingera is also proof of how poets of the period have come to master the language to be able to translate it into effective poetry. The balagtasan would be echoed as a poetical fiesta and would be duplicated in the Ilocos as thebukanegan, in honor of Pedro Bukaneg, the supposed transcriber of the epic, Biag ni Lam-ang; and theCrissottan, in Pampanga, in honor of the esteemed poet of the Pampango, Juan Crisostomo Sotto. In 1932, Alejandro G. Abadilla , armed with new criticism and an orientation on  modernist poetry would taunt traditional Tagalog poetics with the publication of his poem, Ako ang Daigdig. Abadilla’s poetry began the era of modernism in Tagalog poetry, a departure from the traditional rhymed, measured and orally recited poems. Modernist poetry which utilized free or blank verses was intended more for silent reading than oral delivery. Noted poets in Tagalog during the American period were Julian Cruz Balmaceda, Florentino Collantes, Pedro Gatmaitan, Jose Corazon de Jesus, Benigno Ramos, Inigo Ed. Regalado, Ildefonso Santos, Lope K.  Santos, Aniceto Silvestre, Emilio Mar. Antonio, Alejandro Abadilla and Teodoro Agoncillo. Like the writers in English who formed themselves into organizations, Tagalog writers also formed the Ilaw at Panitik, and held discussions and workshops on the value of literature in society. Benigno Ramos, was one of the most politicized poets of the period as he aligned himself with the peasants of the Sakdal Movement. Fiction in Tagalog as well as in the other languages of the regions developed alongside the novel. Most fictionists are also novelists. Brigido Batungbakal , Macario Pineda and other writers chose to dwell on the vicissitudes of life in a changing rural landscape. Deogracias Del Rosario on the other hand, chose the city and the emerging social elite as subjects of his stories. He is considered the father of the modern short story in Tagalog Among the more popular fictionists who emerged during the period are two women writers, Liwayway Arceo and Genoveva Edroza Matute, considered forerunners in the use of light fiction, a kind of story telling that uses language through poignant rendition. Genoveva Edroza Matute’s Ako’y Isang Tinig and Liwayway Arceo’s Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa have been used as models of fine writing in Filipino by teachers of composition throughout the school system. Teodoro Agoncillo’s anthology 25 Pinakamahusay na Maiikling Kuwento (1945) included the foremost writers of fiction in the pre-war era. The separate, yet parallel developments of Philippine literature in English and those in Tagalog and other languages of the archipelago during the American period only prove that literature and writing in whatever language and in whatever climate are able to survive mainly through the active imagination of writers. Apparently, what was lacking during the period was for the writers in the various languages to come together, share experiences and come to a conclusion on the elements that constitute good writing in the Philippines.

A View from the Bridge Essay Example for Free

A View from the Bridge Essay Catherines response is immediate denial and hurt at his allegation. She â€Å"sobs†, demanding that he â€Å"stops† as they enter the house. This scene is a turning point in their relationship. For the first time, Catherine is defying Eddies superiority, choosing instead not to believe his claims. Being in a serious relationship, she has begun to grow apart from Eddie and not depend on him as much, which in turn upsets Eddie, who attempts to regain her adoration. Though in the past, Catherine may have trusted Eddies impeachments, her defiance is an act of choosing Rodolpho over Eddie, illustrating her shift from a child to a woman. For the remainder of Act One, Catherine continues to mature through her relationship with Rodolpho, causing her interactions with Eddie to become exceedingly stilted and tense. During this period, Catherine portrays her willingness to cooperate when Eddie makes the effort. Catherine becomes â€Å"nervously happy† when Eddie invites Marco and Rodolpho to watch a fight. She asks Eddie if she should â€Å"make coffee†, aiming to please him for his attempts to make peace with Rodolpho. After Eddie â€Å"lands a blow† on Rodolpho, Catherine begins to realize that the previous invitation was merely a ruse, and thus acts audaciously, discreetly challenging him by dancing with Rodolpho. Act Two begins with a discussion between Catherine and Rodolpho. Catherine confesses her fear of Eddie, a dramatic adverse to her initial loving attitude. When Eddie arrives home obviously drunk and demands that Rodolpho â€Å"packs it up†, Catherine announces that she too, will leave, causing Eddie to erupt in fury at her support for Rodolpho. This further hinders their relationship and Catherines finality is yet another act of defiance. Though Catherine is not outrightly furious, she portrays an air of resignation that simply illustrates her will to be with Rodolpho, including choosing him over Eddie. She still loves and accepts Eddie, however her love for Rodolpho is greater. After Eddie informs the authorities of illegal immigrants, Catherines demeanor changes yet again to complete abhorrence. On the day of her wedding, Eddie gives Beatrice an ultimatum, to be on his â€Å"side† or â€Å"their side†. At this, Catherine loses her temper and insults Eddie, comparing him to a rat that â€Å"belongs in the sewer†. Though her words are aggressive and callous, Catherine â€Å"weeps† as she says such, illustrating her upset at the way in which their relationship, among other factors, turned out. Catherine tells Eddie, after he has been stabbed that she â€Å"never meant to hurt† him, imploring him to understand her situation before his demise. This conveys that although she may have matured and become her own person, Eddie will still always remain a key influence in her life. Throughout A View from the Bridge, Catherines relationship with Eddie seems to digress rather than develop, as she grows and appreciates love. However, underlying their tension and her need for independence, Catherine is portrayed as always desiring Eddies approval. Initially, this is very obvious, but is still apparent when Eddie makes an effort to include Rodolpho, and yet again at the end of the performance, when she begs Eddie to comprehend her perceptions. Though Catherine is less apparent of her love for Eddie, she continues to love him, and crave his love for her. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Arthur Miller section.

Why Do Cities Develop at Different Rates?

Why Do Cities Develop at Different Rates? Why do cities and regions develop at different rates and with different trajectories, and  how can planning and development policy address issues of uneven development? â€Å"Development trajectories are not straight forward for local governments to solve† (Hall and Hesse, 2013), there are many reasons why cities and regions develop at different rates and trajectories. This essay aims to explore some of the theories behind uneven development trajectories such as is the world becoming flat and time – space compression or alternatively the fact uneven development does occur with competitiveness and knowledge industry. Secondly this essay will then explain some possible planning strategies and policies that address the issues of uneven development such as land ownership, zoning and bottom up governance. Uneven development occurs across the world and there are many different reasons for different rates growth. some theorists however believe development is relatively even, Friedman (2005) describes the world as becoming flat, this is due to the technological advancements which have resulted in a globalised economy and â€Å"the development of a common global culture† (Held, 2004:88). The location of a company is no longer important; you can be successful anywhere in the world without having to move this is due to the ‘Borderless economy created by technological improvements’ (Sander, 2005). Friedman describes this by stating ‘when the world is flat you can innovate without having to emigrate’ (Friedman, 2005). Friedman’s view has been shared by other economists who describe the levelling effect on the economy to be even in many ways (Florida, 2005:48). Even though borderless economies can improve regions and cities across the world Mander and Ba rker (2002) question whether this development positively affects everyone by stating that â€Å"Economic globalisation makes things worse for poor people not better† (Mander and Baker, 2002:2). Harvey (1989) also shared similar views to Friedman through the idea of time-space compression as a cause to the flattening of the world. Time space Compression is described by Harvey as time and space forced to alter due to technological advancements and capitalism which has â€Å"sped up the pace of life† (Harvey, 1989:240). It creates â€Å"a significant acceleration of social, particularly capitalist, dynamics due to a new global communications network† (Stalder, 2006), Time-space compression simply referrers to the â€Å"Increased velocity of the circulation of goods, people and information† (Thrift and May, 2001:106). It overcomes spatial barriers and opens up new markets through high speed communication, something that Leamer (2007) explains as being an important factor to creating even development. Good communication and technologies enables good knowledge transfer and therefore no need for agglomeration resulting in development that is spread equally. Opposing the above arguments there is the argument that development occurs at uneven trajectories. Florida (2005) describes how there has been explosive growth in population numbers within cities, â€Å"now in some advanced countries three out of four people live in urban areas† (Florida, 2005:48). He explains that this has caused development across the world to be ‘spikey’ due to the world being †full of clusters where location matters, most notably in cities† (Feiock et al., 2008). Florida describes the idea of a ‘creative class’ as a reason why many people migrate to cities as increasing development is seen in these areas. Florida (2002) describes successful regions and cities as attracting the ‘creative class’, these people consist of â€Å"young, upwardly and geographically mobile professionals†. And many are often associated as being ‘bohemians’ and creative people (Stolarick and Florida, 2006), this is described by Millander et al. (2014) as a â€Å"creative milieu†. These people are attracted to the idea of community, the â€Å"attraction and retention of these individuals becomes a centrepiece of economic growth† (Feiock et al., 2008). The clustering of creative classes in cities and areas of technological advancement leaves uneven distribution of knowledge across a nation (Mellander et al., 2014) which often leads to regions having different development trajectories. Nagle (1995:14) Cited from Myrdal (1955) explains the concept of cumulative causation through a core- periphery model, this presents the â€Å"unfolding of events as a consequence of the multiplier effect† (Mayhew, 2009) Regional advantages attract investment creating a core region of development, â€Å"Skilled workers investment, new technology and developments gravitate from periphery regions to the core† (Nagle 1995:14. Demand for goods comes from the periphery areas creating the backwash effect. Finally knowledge overflow and increased demand may create growth in periphery areas; this is known as the spread effect. A Perfect example of this is the silicon valley in California, here a business cluster of innovation and knowledge has resulted in enhanced competition and clustering, creating a core development region and at the same time has periphery regions. The rate of development of a nation often refers to the nation as a whole; this is arguably out dated as â€Å"nations-states were created to meet the needs of a much earlier historical period† (Hashimoto, 2013). Due to a the borderless economy that has been created as a result of globalisation it’s now suggested that nations states should be converted to regional-states, â€Å"regional-states are natural economic zones which are drawn by the deft invisible hand of the global market† (Ohmea, 1995) High levels of innovation create clusters of technology industries forcing greater competitiveness. Porter (2008) describes the importance of competitiveness in determining development trajectories of a certain region as Competitiveness is global as well as regional. â€Å"Competiveness of a region or nation has been a primary focus for governments wishing to seek investment and create jobs† (Porter, 2008), this is due to the potential development it can attract. Porter’s ‘competitive advantage diamond model’ displays the economic benefits clustering can bring to regions through a range of factors contributing to competitiveness (porter, 1990). The model is used to analyse the competiveness through four factors, for example customer characteristics etc. (Walker, 2004:177). â€Å"Improving competitiveness is central to raising the underlying rate of growth of the economy and enhancing living standards† (Shafaeddin, 2012), this therefore suggests that regions and cities which experience more competitiveness are likely to have greater development trajectories. Huggins and Izushi (2011) explain how Porters model can be used to create a competitive advantage; it is this advantage that arguably creates different rates of development in cities and regions. Competitiveness is vital for economic growth however Prasnikar (2006:325) explains it can sometimes lead to unsustainable development and therefore companies must maintain corporate social responsibility. Huggins and Thompson (2010) development index is a way of measuring competitiveness, â€Å"competitiveness involves the upgrading and economic development of all places together, rather than the improvement of one place at the expense of another† (Huggins and Thompson, 2010:4). This can be used by governments to monitor and assess the development of regions. Development rates can differ due to the amount of inward investment a region attracts. Opposing Harvey and Friedman, globalization has arguably been a main cause of uneven development as it â€Å"has been governed in ways that are undemocratic and have been disadvantageous to developing countries† (Stigltz, 2002). It is therefore vital that correct planning and development policies are put in place to ensure cities and regions can develop as one sustainably. It’s important to note that countries promoting the best policies in addressing uneven development use a â€Å"wide range of actors, key participants and influences†¦ which are in almost all cases built upon public – private partnership† (Huggins and Izushi, 2007:118). There are several specific development policies that can be put into place in order to address issues associated with uneven development. â€Å"Good development policy is context specific† (World Bank, 2003:9), this means a policies effectiveness may vary between regions and cities and therefore policies chosen must address specific issues of the region. Globalisation has given way to multinational corporations having large amounts of power due to their size and global reach, â€Å"multinationals and governments competing for control over operations during market expansion† (Luo, 2002:73). As a result many multinationals can gain leverage over governments. As rates of development vary due to context, development should therefore be controlled regionally resulting in differing policy and development plans. The use of governments â€Å"top-down, Centralising, ‘one size fits all’† (Bradbury, 2008:132) polices contradicts the importance of context specif ic initiatives as policy are likely to prove ineffective in some regions. It is therefore suggested that bottom-up planning is introduced; this is more effective as it offers bespoke polies relevant to the characteristics of a region. Das (2005) Explains this will devolve power to regions and cities increasing democracy, as a result this should enhance conditions for sustainable development. A great example where Bottom up planning is being put into action is in England where the introduction of neighbourhood plans though the localism act of 2011 has made way for planning that is more deliverable and realistic in achieving sustainable development (Chetwyn, 2013). Land ownership within development planning is also vital for sustainable development, it’s important that correct development and planning policy is created to ensure arbitrate land use conflicts between social, economic, and spatial use are dealt with (Linchfield, 1980:8). This is specifically important in developing counties where often land rights are distributed unfairly and leave land owners sceptical as to whether or not they will be able to retain their land. By granting Land ownership this creates enterprise, motivation and promotes innovation (Lipton, 2009:2), the uncertainty of land rights can often stall development as investment is reduced which Fatas and Mihov (2009:7) described as one of 4 factors contributing to the economic development of regions. Government intervention plays an important role in the creation of successful development policies; another way of improving the rate of development across a region sustainably is to introduce taxes on land. Shirazi a nd Shah (1991:140) suggest that this will provide additional revenues to central governments allowing them to invest in infrastructure which would attract investment, â€Å"good infrastructure attracts investment by connecting firms to their customers and suppliers† (OECD, 2006:59). In Tanzania and many African nations have seen success form land ownership, it has â€Å"spurred economic growth and improved shared prosperity for the countrys population† (All Africa, 2013) The use of successful development plans is essential in addressing uneven development. There are several aspects such and bottom-up planning already discussed that can contribute to reducing uneven development. Land use zoning is another strategy that is efficient in addressing uneven development. Zoning plans are designed by the government and decide â€Å"what kind of buildings can be built and where in the community they can be built† (Euchner and McGovern, 2003:155). The use of zoning separates different land uses that could perhaps conflict such as â€Å"residential, business and industrial uses† (Soule, 2006:30). It controls new sustainable development that doesn’t affect any existing development. Zoning is able to create even development as it regulates where certain types of development can take place, this can replace previous systems where â€Å"restrictive land use policies have discouraged new companies and new job creation (Baily and Kirkegaard, 200 4:8). By using a zoning scheme â€Å"specific beneficial incentives can be offered in return for specific contributions by the developer† (Silberstein and Maser, 2000:35). This would attract investment to areas of a region as well as improving infrastructure and creating jobs, encourage the creative classes to locate to these areas resulting in more even development. The United States of America has seen â€Å"Great success of Euclidean zoning† (Soule, 2007:27), zoning can be found as the foundation of many American development plans such as Chicago. With population numbers rising and a globalising economy; development is set to increase, it therefor vital sustainable planning policies are operating. This essay has displayed some possible reasons for why cities and regions might develop at different rates though theorist such as Florida (2005) and porter (2008), they suggest that Creative classes and competitiveness create uneven development. Friedman (2005) and Harvey (1989) argue against this idea of development being ‘spikey’ and suggest due to globalisation and a borderless economy; location is not important allowing development to take place at the same rate. Planning and development policy can play an influential role in addressing uneven development as well as maintaining sustainable development. This essay has displayed several effective policy schemes such as Bottom-up governance, land rights, taxation and land use zoning that have proved effective in tackling uneven development. In conclusion uneven develop ment is occurring; it is possible to tackle uneven development though successful policy however it must be remembered that many regions develop at different rates. Many of these are located in less economically developed countries which lack effectiveness in delivering successful policy. As a result its vital that these countries have the support form supra-national bodies such as The United Nations and World Bank in order to achieve development that addresses uneven development and is sustainable for future generations. Bibliography All Africa (2013) [ONLINE] http://allafrica.com/stories/201312300059.html (Assessed 22/1/14). Bailey, M, Kirkegaard, J (2004) â€Å"Transforming the European Economy†, The Institute for International Economics. Bradbury, J (2008) â€Å"Devolution, Regionalism and Regional Development: The UK Experience†, Routledge. Chetwyn, D. (2013) â€Å"Quick guide to neighbourhood plans†, Urban Vision Enterprise CIC. Das, P, S. (2005) â€Å"Decentralized Planning and Participatory Rural Development†, Concept Publishing Company. Euchner,C, McGovern, S (2003) â€Å"Urban Policy Reconsidered: Dialogues on the Problems and Prospects of American Cities. Fatas, A, Mihov, J (2009) â€Å"The 4 I’s of Economic Growth†, INSEAD. Feiock, R, C, Moon, M, J Park, H, J (2008) â€Å"Is the world â€Å"flat† or â€Å"spiky†? Rethinking the governance implications of globalization for economic development†, Public Administration Review. Florida, R (2005) â€Å"The world in numbers: the world is spikey†, The Atlantic Monthly October Edition. Florida, R (2002) â€Å"The Rise of the Creative Class: And How Its Transforming Work, Leisure, Community, and Everyday Life†, Basic Books. Friedman T, L (2005) â€Å"The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century†, Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Hall, P, V, Hesse, M (2013) â€Å"Cities, Regions and Flows†, Routledge. Harvey Hashimoto, H (2004) â€Å"Prospects for a Regional Human Rights Mechanism in East Asia†, Routledge. Held, D (2004) â€Å"A Globalizing World?: Culture, Economics, Politics†, Routledge. Huggins, R and Izushi, H (2011) â€Å"Competition, Competitive Advantage, and Clusters: The Ideas of Michael Porter†, Oxford University Press. Huggins, R and Izushi, H (2007) â€Å"Competing for Knowledge: Creating, Connecting and Growing†, Routledge. Huggins and Thompson (2010) â€Å"UK Competitiveness Index 2010†, University of Wales Institute of Cardiff. Leamer Linchfeild, N (1980) â€Å"Settlement Planning and Development: A Strategy for Land Policy†, University of British Columbia. Lipton, M (2009) â€Å"Land Reform in Developing Countries: Property Rights and Property Wrongs†, Routledge. Luo, Y (2002) â€Å"Multinational Enterprises in Emerging Markets† Copenhagen Business School Press. Mander, J, Baker, D (2002) â€Å"Does Globalisation help the poor†, Special report, International Forum on Globalisation Mayhew, S (2009) â€Å"A Dictionary of Geography†, Oxford University Press. Mellander, C, Florida, R, Asheim, B, T, Gertler, M (2014) â€Å"The Creative Class Goes Global†, Routledge. Nagle,G (1995) â€Å"Development and Underdevelopment†, Nelson. Ohmae, K (1995) â€Å"The end of the nation state: The rise of the regional economy†, New York Free Press. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2006) â€Å"Policy Framework for Investment†, OECD Publishing. Porter, M, E (2008) â€Å"On Competition†, Harvard Business School Publishing. Porter, M, E (1990) â€Å"The Competitive Advantage of Nations†, MacMillan. Prasnikar, J (2006) â€Å"Competitiveness, Social Responsibility and Economic Growth†, Nova Science Publishers. Silberstein, J, Maser, C (2000) â€Å"Land-Use Planning for Sustainable Development†, CRC Press. Shirazi, J Shah, A (1991) â€Å"Tax Policy in Developing Countries†, The World Bank, Vol 19. Soule, D (2007) â€Å"Remaking American Communities: A Reference Guide to Urban Sprawl† Greenwood Press. Soule, D (2006) â€Å"Urban Sprawl: A Comprehensive Reference Guide†, Greenwood Press. Sander Shafaeddin, M (2012) â€Å"Competitiveness and Development: Myth and Realities†, Anthem Press. Stalder, F (2006) â€Å"Manuel Castells: The Theory of the Network Society†, Polity press. Stiglitz, J, E (2002) â€Å"Globalisms Discontents†, American Prospect. Stolarick, K, Florida, R (2006) †Creativity connections and innovation a study of linkages in the Montreal region†, Environment and planning, Vol 38 pp 1799-1817. Thrift, N May, J (2001) â€Å"Timespace: Geographies of Temporality†, Routledge. World Bank (2004) †2003 Annual Review of Development Effectiveness: The Effectiveness of Bank support for policy reform†, World Bank Operations Evaluation Department.

Freedom of Cyber-Speech -- Internet Censorship Essay

Freedom of Cyber-Speech      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Freedom of speech has always been an important issue in American society.   With the advent of the Internet as a high-speed communication device, this issue has become even more prominent in recent years.   This paper will explore the issue of whether the Internet should be censored. Additionally, it will investigate possible methods for undertaking this censorship.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Since 1787, the Constitution has been integral part of American society.   The First Amendment to the Constitution, passed in 1791, reads: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. [1]    For two hundred years, this amendment has been tested in many different ways.   Over the years, the government passed many laws that did, in fact, "abridge the freedom of speech" for a variety of reasons.   Now, new technology appears to be giving the government another issue in which it must decide if it should go against the literal interpretation of the Constitution.  Ã‚   This paper will show how content on the Internet can be seen as dangerous, and if it should be censored.   It will then investigate what strategies are being used to censor it.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Internet has provided a new and very powerful communication tool for Americans over the past several years.   With the Internet, ideas can be transferred faster than ever before.   Countless benefits have arisen with the development of the Internet, including powerful research resources, on-line shopping, and more.   However, with ... ...ier Foundation. 10/17/99.   http://www.eff.org/EFFdocs/about_eff.html#mission - An introduction to the EFF [6] First Amendment and Free Expression.   Center for Democratic Technology.   10/17/99.   http://www.cdt.org/speech/ An introduction to the CDT [7] The Freedom Forum Online.   The Freedom Forum.   10/19/99. http://www.freedomforum.org - An introduction to the Freedom Forum [8] The Free Expression Network The Free Expression Network.   .http://www.freeexpression.org   - An introduction to the Free Expression Network [9] United States Supreme Court.   Schenck v. United States.   1919. [10]United States Congress.   Title V - Broadcast Obscenity and Violence.   1995. [11] Baase, Sarah.   Gift of Fire. New Jersey:   Prentice-Hall, Inc.   1997. [12] GetNetWise.   GetNetWise.   10/17/99.   www.getnetwise.com - A tool for obtaining web-filtering software.

Using The Mythology of Love to Analyze Amy Foster Essay -- Amy Foster

Using The Mythology of Love to Analyze Amy Foster In Amy Foster, Joseph Conrad has written a great story that shows the different types of love felt between Amy and Yanko as described by Joseph Campbell in his essay on The Mythology of Love. The relationship of Yanko and Amy is dynamic and changes as the story progresses. At first, Amy feels compassion for Yanko; she does not see the differences between him and the English people as the others of Brenzett do. However, later in the story, compassion turns to passion. Amy's son is then born; distinctions appear and she is either no longer able to love Yanko or she loves Yanko to such an extent that she finds she is incapable of joining Yanko on an earthly plane as Joseph Campbell describes (page 159). Whatever the reasons may be, Amy refuses to aid Yanko in his time of need, resulting in Yanko's death. There is a great change of heart from Amy's first compassion for Yanko to her nonchalance of his death. However, the results may have only been a product of the different levels of love felt by Amy for Yanko. The general population of Brenzett treats Yanko an escaped lunatic when he is first spotted in the seaside town. He is whipped, stoned and beaten by many of the residents. In addition, he was captured and caged like a wild animal. He is described as a "drunk", "tramp", and "creature". He is very different from the usual Englishman and is treated as such. He is segregated and is forced to work for Mr. Swaffer. However, one person sees through the differences. Amy, perhaps because of her stupidity or an ability to feel for Yanko, does not see a wild foreigner that screams at night and dances strangely. She saw only the similariti... ... an alien and does not aid him, while she has lost all love for him. It is unclear to the reader whether it is great love that Amy experiences - so great, she cannot bear the pain - or it is an inability to love Yanko anymore that causes her stay motionless as Yanko calls for her help as he dies in front of her. The story of Amy Foster presents an incredible mystery about the love between a dull woman and a foreign man. Even with the aid of an extremely helpful analysis of love by Joseph Campbell, it remains unclear why Amy acts the way she does as Yanko lies on his deathbed. Does Amy feel an immense love for Yanko or does she fail to love him at all? Whatever the reason may be, it is clear that she expresses throughout the story many of the differing types of love along with their implications discussed in Campbell's essay, The Mythology of Love.

The Symbol Of A Lion :: essays research papers

The symbol of the lion represents everything in the short story â€Å"A Lion on the Freeway†. It was written by Nadine Gordimer in her short story book called The Embrace of a Soldier. Gordimer was an African writer, and her stories have been translated into many languages including English for many people to enjoy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The story â€Å"A Lion on the Freeway† is about a lion which has escaped onto the freeway. Gordimer describes the scenery of a town with a zoo in it and how the main character can always hear the animals making noise, especially the lion. This fiercely described story is short, but makes a very important point about the lion in general.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To Gordmer, the lion is a symbol of wild power, and its original home in Africa was also where this author once lived. A popular phrase people hear of the lion is that it is the â€Å"king of the jungle†. That single phrase describes the lion perfectly, because the lion is a being of great power and passion and its strength and boldness is recognized throughout the world. In this story, it is contained in a cage, not taken from the wild, but born there. The lion may have been born in captivity, but its wild instincts are definitely still alive within the lion’s spirit. This is why the lion would yearn for a way out of its cage and search for freedom.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the end of the story, though, Gordimer explains of how the people must capture this lion and stop it once again, if not kill it. Because of its great power and strength, the people are afraid of it and therefor must find a way to stop the lion before he causes damage. This may represent raw human emotions and feelings from deep inside the human race. People cannot let these raw instincts escape to keep order in the world, so then we must keep them locked away inside where no one can see them. Secrecy. As in the lion, these feelings are powerful, but in society instincts must be controlled. However, do people always control their emotions and what they feel at heart? Definitely not, but the public would usually like to think so, except perhaps when it may come to cliches or advertisements (because they ironicly admire those who stand out).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If one does not look at â€Å"A Lion on the Freeway† carefully, it seems dull and unimaginative.

Discuss the role of Marketing and the Marketing Department using an organization of your choice to illustrate the points you make

Marketing plays diverse roles in most organizations of the world. These roles have not been static but have changed with the changing times. Marketing helps in growing revenue for organizations. Every other activity of the organization contributes to the cost factor. It is only through the sale of goods, services and ideas that revenue is generated. Marketing plays a yeoman’s role in this regard. For example, organization XYZ recorded a revenue of 350 million dollars last year (2006). This was a twenty percent increment over that of the previous year (2005). The various marketing activities undertaken such as advertising, sales promotion, customer relation building and management, etc contributed in achieving this feat for organization XYZ. Marketing helps in positioning and branding the organization at the marketplace (Webster, Jr, 1992). There are several vendors and customers in the value chain and the ability of an organization to properly set itself apart from the competitive landscape to a large extent depends on how it is marketed. How an organization is perceived at the marketplace determines the extent to which it prospers. If an organization is poorly perceived, it is unlikely that it can garner the needed customers to patronize its goods and services. On the other hand, if it is well perceived and received by the consuming public, doing business becomes easier. It is the duty of marketing to make the right promises, to come up with an appropriate name and logo for the organization and in projecting a good corporate image for the organization at the marketplace. The marketing function plays a key role in managing several important connections between the customer and critical elements of the organization such as connecting the customer to the product and service delivery (Moorman and Rust, 1999). Special efforts are therefore made not only to woo new customers but also to hold unto the existing ones. Customer relationships building and management are important undertakings by the marketing function. Customer relationship management optimizes demand for the products and services of the organization. It involves in identifying and responding to needs of the customer (SAP and Peppers and Rodgers Group, 2005). Any organization that seeks to prosper at the marketplace cannot afford not to treat its customers well and meet their needs. Marketing plays a vital role in the implementation of supply chain management (Soonhong and Mentzer, 2000). Supply chain management refers to all of the strategies, processes and technologies that together form the basis for working with internal or external sources of supply (SAP and Peppers and Rodgers Group, 2005). Optimizing one’s supply chain does not only lead to drastic cost-savings but also ensures the goods are supplied when they are needed. Integrating an organization’s supply chain management and customer relationship management has been found to lead to even further greater efficiency and effectiveness (SAP and Peppers and Rodgers Group, 2005). Marketing also play an important role in new product development and product launch. The importance of new products to organization cannot be over-emphasized. Treacy and Wiersema (1995) have singled out product development or innovation with other two disciplines as the surest routes to competitive success. New products help in boosting growth and profit margins of the organization. . Some organizations even allot certain proportions of their profit margins that must be contributed by new products. In some cases the very survival of the organization hinges on the new products that it develops for the marketplace. Marketing actively encourages the active participation of customers in new product development. This is a trend gaining increased acceptance in recent years. Many business undertakings are founded on relationships such as strategic partnerships, alliances and networks (Gronroos, 1997). Marketing plays a vital role in fostering these relationships. This viewpoint has grown in recent times with the concept of relationship marketing. According to Gummesson (1996) the primary role of marketing is to connect suppliers and customers, which also include other stakeholders, both inside and outside of the organization. Marketing also actively promotes the organization at the marketplace or society. Through advertising, sales and trade promotion, sponsorships, contests, etc, the organization sells itself and the goods and services it has on offer. It can therefore be said that without the role of marketing it may be difficult for the organization to be known and its products and services patronized by the general public. The social responsibility of the marketing function cannot go unmentioned. According to Handelman and Arnold (1999) marketers are becoming increasingly aware of the positive impact that marketing actions with a social dimension can have for their organizations. This dimension of marketing has been tied to organizational effectiveness in actively reaching and meeting the needs of target customers or market. Marketing also plays a vital role in corporate planning and decision-making. The research component of marketing provides managers with data on the effectiveness of current marketing mix and provides insights for necessary changes (McDaniel and Gates, 1999) as well as other information for managerial decision-making. Marketing research also offers an avenue for exploring new opportunities in the marketplace. According to Hogarth-Scott and Parkinson (1993) there are two parallel strands in the development of marketing within organizations. One is the growth of a corporate marketing department with responsibility for advertising, the conduct and or purchase of market research and corporate image building in the marketplace. Presently, a great deal of these functions are outsourced to advertising, research, media and brand development agencies. The marketing department plays a coordinating role between the outsourcee agencies and the organization. Apart from liaising with agencies, marketing departments are also responsible for developing marketing strategies and plans for the organizations. The other element, according to Hogarth-Scott and Parkinson (1993), is the role of the buyer and the trading departments. The trading department has influential clout in the organization. They are responsible for product selection, pricing, merchandising and promotion in the organization. To a large extent, effective marketing depends on an integrated organizational effort. There is no doubt that marketing function and the marketing departments have grown in influence in recent decades. According to Moorman and Rust (1999) there has been a movement towards thinking of marketing less as a function and more as a set of values and processes that all functions of the organization participate in implementing. In this view, marketing becomes everybody’s job, which potentially diffuses the marketing function’s role but increases marketing’s influence.

Jack Mapanje as an Imbongi.

HOW JACK MAPANJE FULFILLS THE ROLE OF AN IMBONGI- ON HIS ROYAL BLINDNESS PARAMOUNT heading KWANGWALA. Africa is peerless of the worlds con canfulents, having a unique tangible make up of its own which comprises of virtually of the distinct features in the likes of mountains, lakes, falls and plains beneficial to mention a few. It is from this outset that ane of the integral branches of writings particularly Afri john lit sprouted.Practiced and express in the southern central nation of Malawi, African literature was use as a calamus in a fight for potpourri and was used to question the monstrous leading of the Malawi nation which was universe practiced by the hence countrys president late Dr battle of Hastings Kamuzu Banda. Chirambo (2009 p1) highlights that the government of former president for purport Dr. H. K. Banda and the Malawi Congress Party (MCP) in Malawi was a dictatorship that relied on coercion as well as mobilization of basic popular support and consent t o swan it ego in power for 30 old age (19641994).It was this nerve that gave birth to different self camouflaging writing styles, a point which Kerr (1987) agrees to by scaning that writers formed a Malawian creative writing movement which used literary methods that frequently outwitted Banda and his perpetually prepargond formal and informal censors. dickhead Mapanje, mob Gibbs, Leroy Vail and Landeg White all give accounts of how writers managed to beat censorship. Using oral forms, new metaphors from Malawis natal languages, suggestive words, puns, and certain popular phrases, they managed to camouflage most of the critical literature for circulation without reprisal.Depicting much(prenominal) a writing style some of the writers emerged as messengers. These messengers in African literature are boundaryed as Imbongis. This essay intends to develop to the fore how Jack Mapanje fulfills the image of an imbongi d unmatchable his writings basing its discussion on a th ree stanza poem On His lofty sightlessness Paramount Chief Kwangwala. Mapanje is one of Malawis renowned poets who suffered the hand of Kamuzus readership as he was detained without charge for almost quadruplet years between September 1987 and may 1991.At the season of his arrest, Mapanje was serving as check of the English Department at chancellor College of the University of Malawi. To this day the government has non presumption the actual reasons for his detention (Chirambo 2009, p4). Writing in the time s of Kamuzuism a marge assigned to symbolize Kamuzus oppressive acts, Mapanje secured the theatrical component of an imbongi as his writings circulated against Kamuzus lead with animadversion, noise and at the same time praise. Whereby these are some of the theatrical roles of a praise poet (an Imbongi).Mafeje(1967 p193) defines an imbongi as someone who lived in close proximity to the Chiefs Great view and who accompanied the Chief on authorized occasions . Hi s performances would be directed at the Chief, decrying what was unworthy, assess what was worthy and even forebode what was going to happen. Clearly, the Imbongis role was one that allowed for objurgation . With reference to Mafejes definition then winning a closer look at Mapanjes title On His Royal Blindness Paramount Chief Kwangwala it can well be assumed that the poet was describing the lead of a of import whom the poet himself served as an imbongi.The title on the other hand is brandished with chaff as the poet has used the term blindness which represents the scattered in direction of the leadership in discussion. This leadership can be equated to that of Kamuzu this is so as Banda regarded Malawi as one grownup village in which he was the preponderating Chief, father, guardian, and protector of all stack and went so far as to call Malawi, my ethnic music . . . the whole nation, the tribe of Malawi (Chirambo 2001, p 226). This prompts us to earmark Kamuzu as the chief whos leadership the poet is trying to describe with sarcasm.In the opening stanza the poet is praise the chief by describing how the chief (Kamuzu) finds allegiance in the carried- byness of his people not beneath the fact that they really are carried away alone the chief has instilled in them a sense that he is their hero. This is the Same whole tone that those who lived in the Kamuzu era expressed and it was callable to the fact that Kamuzu termed himself with all sorts of self praising names for example Banda was called Wamuyaya, heart and soul the divinity.The other reason for the undeserved praises was that Kamuzu tell all women and girls to sing songs of praise where ever he was to visit and he named them Mbumba za Kamuzu meaning Kamuzus kidren. As an Imbongi the poet in the outgrowth devil lines of the poem praising his chief but at the same time in the preceding four lines of the stanza the poet is expressing his bad tactility over how the chief dialogue to his people as he addresses.The poet has used the term golden breath which insinuates the importance of the chiefs talks simultaneously criticizing him even more by calling the speeches breath wasting, this has been presented in mockery in the line that says . Those impromptu, long-winded tirades of your expertness Thus Mapanje depicting the role of an imbongi. The molybdenum stanza is just a continuation humourous praise the poet is expressing towards the Chief to whom he is an imbongi. In the first lines of the stanza th poet is refuting the thinking that he is criticizing the chiefs powers which is exactly what he did in the first stanza.He manages to do this by admitting that him too is supposititious to praise the leader and this has been developed in the lines that say I know I too must sing to such royal happiness And I am not arguing. To further limn his devotion Mapanje describes the leaders might by talking about how those that questioned his power suffered, and this is praise in disguise making Mapanje to assume the role of an Imbongi. Mapanje brings up the issue of those that suffered Kamuzuism as they questioned the leaders powers, as a away of showing up his might and at the same time exposing the dark parts of the leaders era.This has been brought up in the lines that say How dare I when we fuddle scribbled our praises all over our graves? Which is a question that the poet has posed to mean how could he question the presidents leadership yet he knows that others confine died because of doing the same. A point which in similar vain Steve Chimombo raised in his piece A Dead call in which he picked animals in the likes of lizards and rats and describe by saying they kept seeking refuge from time to time. In Chimombos circumstance these homeless animals symbolized some of the politicians who went into exile and others who died mysteriously.Mapanje in the remainder lines of the second stanza is using the leaders ill-treatments for pr aise and implicitly unveiling the presidents junky. thereby fulfilling his role as an imbongi. In the third stanza Mapanje is exertion with his criticism by highlighting that he can not go against the presidents governance as he knows people have always done what ever they can to make the leader proud and he would not want to defy such a record. This is in the five lines that say Why should I quarrel when I too have known pretend dancers Dancers making troubled journeys to the gold minesOn stern foot and bringing back manage European gadgets The broken pipes, torn coats, bent on(p) bowler hats, Dangling mirrors and rusty tin cans to make their dancing strange? Mapanje closes the last line by questioning if others did not die trying to please the president. This is to turf out how inhuman the president was. In over(p) closure Mapanjes last stanza is in heart and soul refutation of his underlying criticism in the first three stanzas. He addresses the chief as His grace in s arcasm and refers to himself as just a boor who is bored by the chiefs self-praising, long, meaningless and deadening speeches .Even though he throws such criticism is at the same time praising the chief in the lines that say I am only a child surprised how you broadly disparage Me take aback only by the tedium of your dogging palaver. I adore your majesty. The poet then goes on by reminding the leader that his leadership powers are time bound and allow for at some point in time come to an end, and this is in add together rejection of the term that refers to the president as being immortal the poet has presented this as a simile.He is in addition making a wake up call to the nation by asking it as to when will it realize it is misled by old age that is being expressed by the president. This has been expressed by the poet in the lines that say But paramountcy is like a rain drop On a vast sea. Why should we wait for the children to describe us about toothless gums or our sho wing flies. In conclusion Jack Mapanje as a poet he fulfills his role as an imbongi by using irony, sarcasm, similes, metaphors as poetic tools to camouflage his Kamuzuism challenging ideas which is one of the roles of a praise poet (Imbongi) .Despite highlighting the monstrosity of Kamuzus leadership, Mapanje at the same time praises the president. Thereby fulfilling his role as an Imbongi. REFERENCES. Chirambo, R. (2001) Protesting Politics of death and Darkness in Malawi. Journal of Folklore inquiry 38. 3. Chirambo, R. (2009) Subverting Bandas Dictatorship in Malawi Orality as Counter-Discourse in Jack PDF. Chimombo, S. (1987) Napolo Poems. Zomba Manchichi Publishers. Kerr, D. (1987) Theater in Malawi, The Drama Review 31, Summer. Mafeje, A. (1967) The usance of the Bard in a coetaneous African Community Journal of African Languages.